Pressure heterogeneity caused by fluid injection and diffusion controls occurrence of induced earthquakes
Abstract view|10|times PDF download|3|times
Abstract
Underground fluid-injection operations, such as hydraulic fracturing and enhanced geothermal stimulation, have triggered multiple earthquakes across the globe. Earthquake nucleation models within the rate-and-state friction framework suggest that an increase in fluid pressure favors stable slip. However, certain observations indicate that fluid injected into faults may reduce effective normal stress, promoting fault failure, which highlights the debate on the role of fluids in controlling earthquake fault stability. This paper proposes a rate-and-state friction-based model of earthquake nucleation that incorporates fluid injection and diffusion processes, and extends the stability criteria of the system. The results show that fluid pressure heterogeneity can indeed influence fault stability. Elevated fluid pressure stabilizes faults, however, fluid pressure heterogeneity counteracts this stabilizing effect. The model suggests that pressure heterogeneity above a certain threshold facilitates seismic slip, whereas heterogeneity below this threshold can stabilize it. The results further indicate that this threshold reflects a universal instability criterion inherent to the system, rather than an incidental product of a specific fault or rock type. Accordingly, this study proposes a pressure-heterogeneity index as an operational precursor: Tracking spatiotemporal pore-pressure heterogeneity can guide the traffic-light-style adaptive control of injection. These insights provide a new, mechanism-based explanation for the role of fluids in triggering earthquakes.
Document Type: Original article
Cited as: Han, S., Zhuang, X., Zhou, Q., Feng, X., Hu, X., Yao, Q. Pressure heterogeneity caused by fluid injection and diffusion controls occurrence of induced earthquakes. Advances in Geo-Energy Research, 2025, 18(3): 242-256. https://doi.org/10.46690/ager.2025.12.04
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFReferences
Abe, Y., Kato, N. Complex earthquake cycle simulations using a two-degree-of-freedom spring-block model with a rate and state-friction law. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 2013, 170(5): 745-765.
Alghannam, M., Juanes, R. Understanding rate effects in injection-induced earthquakes. Nature Communications, 2020, 11(1): 3053.
Anyim, K., Gan, Q. Fault zone exploitation in geothermal reservoirs: Production optimization, permeability evolution and induced seismicity. Advances in Geo-Energy Research, 2020, 4(1): 1-12.
Atkinson, G. M., Eaton, D. W., Igonin, N. Developments in understanding seismicity triggered by hydraulic fracturing. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 2020, 1(5): 264-277.
Bedford, J. D., Faulkner, D. R., Allen, M. J., et al. The stabilizing effect of high pore-fluid pressure along subduction megathrust faults: Evidence from friction experiments on accretionary sediments from the Nankai Trough. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2021, 574: 117161.
Biot, M. A. General theory of three-dimensional consolidation. Journal of Applied Physics, 1941, 12(2): 155-164.
Bos, B., Spiers, C. J. Fluid-assisted healing processes in gouge-bearing faults: Insights from experiments on a rock analogue system. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 2002, 159(11): 2537-2566.
Burridge, R., Knopoff, L. Model and theoretical seismicity. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 1967, 57(3): 341-371.
Byerlee, J. The mechanics of stick-slip. Tectonophysics, 1970, 9(5): 475-486.
Cappa, F., Guglielmi, Y., Nussbaum, C., et al. Fluid migration in low-permeability faults driven by decoupling of fault slip and opening. Nature Geoscience, 2022, 15(9): 747-751.
Cappa, F., Scuderi, M. M., Collettini, C., et al. Stabilization of fault slip by fluid injection in the laboratory and in situ. Science Advances, 2019, 5(3): eaau4065.
Cebry, S. B. L., McLaskey, G. C. Seismic swarms produced by rapid fluid injection into a low-permeability laboratory fault. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2021, 557: 116726.
Cruz-Atienza, V. M., Villafuerte, C., Bhat, H. S. Rapid tremor migration and pore-pressure waves in subduction zones. Nature Communications, 2018, 9(1): 2900.
Dieterich, J. H. Time-dependent friction and the mechanics of stick-slip. Pure and Applied Geophysics, 1978, 116(4): 790-806.
Ellsworth, W. L. Injection-induced earthquakes. Science, 2013, 341(6142): 1225942.
Eyring, H. The activated complex in chemical reactions. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 1935, 3(2): 107-115.
Feng, W., Yao, L., Cornelio, C., et al. Physical state of water controls friction of gabbro-built faults. Nature Communications, 2023, 14(1): 4612.
Feng, W., Yao, L., Gomila, R., et al. Slip-dependence of fault frictional stability under hydrothermal conditions. Geophysical Research Letters, 2024, 51(14): e2024GL108525.
Gunatilake, T., Miller, S. A. 3-D model reveals thermal decomposition as a potential driver of seismicity in the Apennines, Italy. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 2025, 137(1-2): 341-350.
Hubbert, M., Rubey, W. Role of fluid pressure in mechanics of overthrust faulting: I. Mechanics of fluid-filled porous solids and its application to overthrust faulting. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 1959, 70(2): 115-166.
Hui, G., Chen, Z., Chen, S., et al. Hydraulic fracturing-induced seismicity characterization through coupled modeling of stress and fracture-fault systems. Advances in Geo-Energy Research, 2022, 6(3): 269-270.
Hui, G., Chen, Z., Lei, Z., et al. A synthetical geoengineering approach to evaluate the largest hydraulic fracturing-induced earthquake in the East Shale Basin, Alberta. Petroleum Science, 2023, 20(1): 460-473.
Ikari, M. J., Marone, C., Saffer, D. M., et al. Slip weakening as a mechanism for slow earthquakes. Nature Geoscience, 2013, 6(6): 468-472.
Ito, Y., Hino, R., Kido, M., et al. Episodic slow slip events in the Japan subduction zone before the 2011 Tohoku-Oki earthquake. Tectonophysics, 2013, 600: 14-26.
Jiang, M., Jin, Y., Fu, X., et al. Physical simulation and quantitative characterization of fault zones based on ringshear experiments. Advances in Geo-Energy Research, 2025, 17(3): 256-266.
Lee, J., Tsai, V. C., Hirth, G., et al. Fault-network geometry influences earthquake frictional behaviour. Nature, 2024, 631(8019): 106-110.
Linker, M. F., Dieterich, J. H. Effects of variable normal stress on rock friction: Observations and constitutive equations. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 1992, 97(B4): 4923-4940.
Liu, J., Zhao, C., Dai, H., et al. Monotonic fluid injection induces fault instability and slip: A laboratory study. Engineering Geology, 2025, 351: 108047.
Luo, Y. D., Ampuero, J. P. Stability of faults with heterogeneous friction properties and effective normal stress. Tectonophysics, 2018, 733: 257-272.
Passelègue, F. X., Almakari, M., Dublanchet, P., et al. Initial effective stress controls the nature of earthquakes. Nature Communications, 2020, 11(1): 5132.
Rao, C. V., Arkin, A. P. Stochastic chemical kinetics and the quasi-steady-state assumption: Application to the Gillespie algorithm. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 2003, 118(11): 4999-5010.
Roche, V., van der Baan, M., Walsh, J. The role of the three-dimensional geometry of fault steps on event migration during fluid-induced seismic sequences. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 2025, 130(2): e2024JB029476.
Ross, Z. E., Cochran, E. S., Trugman, D. T., et al. 3D fault architecture controls the dynamism of earthquake swarms. Science, 2020, 368(6497): 1357-1361.
Ruina, A. Slip instability and state variable friction laws. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 1983, 88(B12): 10359-10370.
Sawai, M., Niemeijer, A. R., Plümper, O., et al. Nucleation of frictional instability caused by fluid pressurization in subducted blueschist. Geophysical Research Letters, 2016, 43(6): 2543-2551.
Scholz, C. Earthquakes and friction laws. Nature, 1998, 391(6662): 37-42.
Scuderi, M. M., Collettini, C. The role of fluid pressure in induced vs. triggered seismicity: Insights from rock deformation experiments on carbonates. Scientific Reports, 2016, 6(1): 24852.
Scuderi, M. M., Collettini, C. Fluid injection and the mechanics of frictional stability of shale-bearing faults. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 2018, 123(10): 8364-8384.
Scuderi, M. M., Collettini, C., Marone, C. Frictional stability and earthquake triggering during fluid pressure stimulation of an experimental fault. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 2017, 477: 84-96.
Segall, P., Rice, J. R. Dilatancy, compaction and slip instability of a fluid-infiltrated fault. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 1995, 100(B11): 22155-22171.
Segel, L. A., Slemrod, M. The quasi-steady-state assumption: A case study in perturbation. SIAM Review, 1989, 31(3): 446-477.
Shvarts, A., Yastrebov, V. Trapped fluid in contact interface. Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, 2018, 119: 140-162.
Sibson, R. H. Arterial faults and their role in mineralizing systems. Geoscience Frontiers, 2019, 10(6): 2093-2100.
Skarbek, R. M., Rempel, A. W., Schmidt, D. A. Geologic heterogeneity can produce aseismic slip transients. Geophysical Research Letters, 2012, 39(21): L21306.
Smith, G. D. Numerical Solution of Partial Differential Equations: Finite Difference Methods. Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press, 1985.
Song, Z., Qian, Y., Mao, Y., et al. Artificial intelligence-based investigation of fault slip induced by stress unloading during geo-energy extraction. Advances in Geo-Energy Research, 2024, 14(2): 106-118.
Sun, Z., Che, M., Zhu, L., et al. Implications for fault reactivation and seismicity induced by hydraulic fracturing. Petroleum Science, 2024, 21(2): 1081-1098.
Sun, Z., Elsworth, D., Cui, G., et al. Impacts of rate of change in effective stress and inertial effects on fault slip behavior: New insights into injection-induced earthquakes. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 2024, 129(2): e2023JB027126.
Tarling, M. S., Smith, S. A., Scott, J. M. Fluid overpressure from chemical reactions in serpentinite within the source region of deep episodic tremor. Nature Geoscience, 2019, 12(12): 1034-1042.
Wang, H. F. Theory of Linear Poroelasticity with Applications to Geomechanics and Hydrogeology. Princeton, USA, Princeton University Press, 2000.
Witherspoon, P. A., Wang, J. S., Iwai, K., et al. Validity of cubic law for fluid flow in a deformable rock fracture. Water Resources Research, 1980, 16(6): 1016-1024.
Yoshida, S., Kato, N. Episodic aseismic slip in a two-degree-of-freedom blockspring model. Geophysical Research Letters, 2003, 30(13): 1681.
Zega, Z., Zhu, W. Stabilizing effect of high pore fluid pressure on fault growth during drained deformation. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 2023, 128(8): e2023JB026536.
Zhang, X., Jeffrey, R. G., Wu, B., et al. Modeling of injection induced seismic events. Paper SPE 181793 Presented at SPE Asia Pacific Hydraulic Fracturing Conference, Beijing, 24-26 August, 2016.
Zhu, J., Kang, J., Elsworth, D., et al. Controlling induced earthquake magnitude by cycled fluid injection. Geophysical Research Letters, 2021, 48(19): e2021GL092885.
Zhu, W., Allison, K. L., Dunham, E. M., et al. Fault valving and pore pressure evolution in simulations of earthquake sequences and aseismic slip. Nature Communications, 2020, 11(1): 4833.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.46690/ager.2025.12.04
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
Copyright (c) 2025 The Author(s)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.